Libya
Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs and Berbers.
History
For most of their history, the peoples of Libya have been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control. The Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines ruled all or parts of Libya. Although the Greeks and Romans left impressive ruins at Cyrene, Leptis Magna, and Sabratha, little else remains today to testify to the presence of these ancient cultures.
The Arabs conquered Libya in the seventh century A.D. In the following centuries, most of the indigenous peoples adopted Islam and the Arabic language and culture. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century. Libya remained part of their empire, although at times virtually autonomous, until Italy invaded in 1911 and, in the face of years of resistance, made Libya a colony.
In 1934, Italy adopted the name “Libya” (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony…….. King Idris I, Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two world wars. Allied forces removed Axis powers from Libya in February 1943. ….. …. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.
On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. ……. When Libya declared its independence on December 24, 1951, it was the first country to achieve independence through the United Nations and one of the first former European possessions in Africa to gain independence. Libya was proclaimed a constitutional and a hereditary monarchy under King Idris.
The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled what had been one of the world’s poorest countries to become extremely wealthy, as measured by per capita GDP. Although oil drastically improved Libya’s finances, popular resentment grew as wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise throughout the Arab world of Nasserism and the idea of Arab unity.
On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 28-year-old army officer Mu’ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi staged a coup d’etat against King Idris, who was subsequently exiled to Egypt. The new regime, headed by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Qadhafi emerged as leader of the RCC and eventually as de facto head of state, a political role he still plays. The Libyan Government asserts that Qadhafi currently holds no official position, although he is referred to in government statements and the official press as the “Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution,” among other honorifics.
The new RCC’s motto became “freedom, socialism, and unity.” It pledged itself to remedy “backwardness,” take an active role in the Palestinian cause, promote Arab unity, and encourage domestic policies based on social justice, non-exploitation, and an equitable distribution of wealth.
An early objective of the new government was withdrawal of all foreign military installations from Libya. Following negotiations, British military installations at Tobruk and nearby El Adem were closed in March 1970, and U.S. facilities at Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli were closed in June 1970. That July, the Libyan Government ordered the expulsion of several thousand Italian residents. By 1971, libraries and cultural centers operated by foreign governments were ordered closed.
In the 1970s, Libya claimed leadership of Arab and African revolutionary forces and sought active roles in international organizations. Late in the 1970s, Libyan embassies were re-designated as “people’s bureaus,” as Qadhafi sought to portray Libyan foreign policy as an expression of the popular will. The people’s bureaus, aided by Libyan religious, political, educational, and business institutions overseas, attempted to export Qadhafi’s revolutionary philosophy abroad.
Qadhafi’s confrontational foreign policies and use of terrorism, as well as Libya’s growing friendship with the U.S.S.R., led to increased tensions with the West in the 1980s. Following a terrorist bombing at a discotheque in West Berlin frequented by American military personnel, in 1986 the U.S. retaliated militarily against targets in Libya, and imposed broad unilateral economic sanctions.
After Libya was implicated in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. UN Security Council resolutions (UNSCRs) passed in 1992 and 1993 obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted. Qadhafi initially refused to comply with these requirements, leading to Libya’s political and economic isolation for most of the 1990s.
In 1999, Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans who were suspected to have been involved with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the Netherlands. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset Ali Mohamed al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. Al-Megrahi’s conviction was upheld on appeal in 2002. On August 19, 2009, al-Megrahi was released from Scottish prison on compassionate grounds due to a terminal illness and returned to Libya. In August 2003, Libya fulfilled the remaining UNSCR requirements, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation to the victims’ families. UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003. U.S. International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA)-based sanctions were lifted September 20, 2004.
On December 19, 2003, Libya publicly announced its intention to rid itself of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)-class missile programs. Subsequently, Libya cooperated with the U.S., the U.K., the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons toward these objectives. Libya has also signed the IAEA Additional Protocol and has become a State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. These were important steps toward full diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Libya.
Nationwide political violence erupted in February 2011, following the Libyan Government’s brutal suppression of popular protests against Libyan leader Mu’ammar al-Qadhafi. Opposition forces quickly seized control of Benghazi, Libya’s second-largest city, as well as significant portions of eastern Libya and some areas in western Libya. Drawing from the local opposition councils which formed the backbone of the “February 17” revolution, the Libyan opposition announced the formation of a Transitional National Council (TNC) on February 27, 2011. The Council has stated its desire to remove Qadhafi from power and establish a unified, democratic, and free Libya that respects universal human rights principles.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm#history
Gaddafi Is Mad, I’m Anxious How Many People Will Die – Hisham Matar
Libyan writer Hisham Matar reflects on the disappearance of his father and how it has affected his new book Anatomy Of A Disappearance.
Four weeks ago, the plan was to talk to Booker-nominated author Hisham Matar about his new novel and perhaps touch on recent events in Cairo, where Matar spent several years as a boy.
Now it’s Libya that’s dominating the headlines, the country where Matar’s parents were born, and in whose appalling, labyrinthine, secret prison system Matar’s father disappeared in 1990.
Everything has suddenly changed and Matar is feeling a little excited. It has been, he admits, ‘an amazing time’.
Matar was 20 when two men in suits arrived at the family home in Cairo. His father answered the door, and that was that.
He was a member of Libya’s intellectual middle class, a successful businessman who, as a pro-democracy activist, had been forced to live in semi-permanent exile in Egypt.
Last year, a friend claimed he saw Matar’s father alive in a Tripoli prison in 2002. (This is significant: at one point, Matar’s father was in Abu Salim prison, where, in 1996, Libyan authorities slaughtered 1,200 political prisoners.) Since then there’s been nothing.
‘I don’t know if he’s still in the world or not,’ says Matar, sitting in a sun-splashed café near his west London home. ‘This ambiguity, it’s a very unusual situation. I’ve lived more than half of my life like this.’
As a writer, Matar, who has lived in Britain since 1986, has always been determined to ‘create something’ out of his preoccupation with what has happened to his family.
The Booker-shortlisted In The Country Of Men, Matar’s darkly urgent 2006 debut about Col Muammar Gaddafi’s murderous cultural terrorism, was dominated by the imprisonment and torture of narrator Suleiman’s father.
Matar has returned to the same subject in Anatomy Of A Disappearance, a more internalised, poetic book about a boy growing up in the shadow of his lost father, taken from a house in Geneva when the narrator is 14.
‘I know people will say: “He can only write about one thing”,’ smiles Matar, ‘and obviously my feelings about my father are central to my life.
‘But I also write about fathers who are different to mine, who are very aloof. In a way, I am writing about fathers in order not to write about my own.’
Does he think his father’s disappearance made him a writer?
‘You could say it made me a certain kind of writer,’ he concedes. ‘But he always encouraged me. He smuggled out two letters from prison, the last in 1995. To my brother, he asked after his wife and children. To me, he asked whether I was still writing poems.’
In the past month, history has abruptly crashed in on Matar’s state of semi-suspension: Libya is on the cusp of something extraordinary.
‘I’m very anxious about how many people will die because Gaddafi is mad,’ says Matar. ‘However, I also think his regime is now impossible. He would have to kill so many people that Libya would no longer be a country.’
His own memories of growing up in Tripoli and Cairo are golden. Yet, as a teenager, he chose to go to school in England, not just because he could buy Bob Marley records here but because he wanted something stable.
‘In Egypt, we’d visit all these lovely houses with a view to buying them, then we’d drive home in weary silence because my parents just couldn’t commit,’ he says.
‘They always said: “Next year we’ll be back in Tripoli.” Our entire life was hinged on this uncertainty and as a child, I wanted something I could rely on.’
He says friends in Libya now talk excitedly of no longer living in fear. ‘As someone who has always been very interested in democracy, whose father tried to teach us about it, and having observed it up close in the West, I still feel these protests have been an education in what is possible,’ he says. ‘It’s strengthened my faith in human nature.’
Does he think his father is still alive? ‘Perhaps. But I think it would be a miracle.’
Read more: http://www.metro.co.uk/lifestyle/857409-gaddafi-is-mad-im-anxious-how-many-people-will-die-hisham-matar#ixzz1azEbLBQo
The Disappeared
For his son, a successful writer living in England, the vague message was “tremendous but unsettling. I felt I’d provoked it, by spending three years on a book taking me into dark places of the soul,” he told NEWSWEEK in his West London apartment. The unverifiable news was “like a voice in my head. Writing this book took me a little too close to the flame.”
Anatomy of a Disappearance is out in the U.S. on Aug. 23. By coincidence, it came out in London on the heels of the Libyan uprising in February that could yet bring a resolution to the author’s torturous uncertainty. On Feb. 3, when Gaddafi still hoped to head off protests, two of Matar’s uncles and two cousins were released after 21 years of wrongful imprisonment, along with eight other political prisoners. His father was not among them.
Matar, 40, with ink-black curls, has a gentle air of detachment and a haunting past. He was born in New York, where his father was a U.N. diplomat, the year after Gaddafi’s bloodless coup. He was raised in Tripoli until he was 9, when his family fled to Egypt. At boarding school in England, he lived under a false identity as “Bob,” a Christian from Cairo, because Libyan agents were picking off political exiles and their families. He was 19, an architecture student in London, when his father was abducted from their Cairo home by Hosni Mubarak’s security forces. They handed him over to be tortured in Tripoli’s Abu Salim prison.
Matar’s 2006 debut, In the Country of Men, revealed a Libya of public executions and private betrayals through the eyes of a boy in the late ’70s whose dissident father is incarcerated by the “Guide.” After that novel, a finalist for the Man Booker Prize, Matar campaigned openly for his father. Desmond Tutu and Salman Rushdie were among his supporters.
The brutal disappearance of a loved one lacks the finality of bereavement. Matar finds it devastating that “their experience continues at the expense of your intimacy. If my father is alive, he’s formed strong friendships in another place. There’s a jealousy.”
Anatomy of a Disappearance moves between Egypt, Switzerland, and London to trace a corrosive love triangle. After fleeing an unnamed dictatorship, 12-year-old Nuri and his widowed father become rivals for a young Egyptian-English woman. When the father is brutally abducted from the bed of a Swiss woman, Nuri’s guilt grows at having lost the father he once wished to banish. It is a haunting tale of a man suspended in the past, his identity fixed by loss.
Matar’s imagination was awakened by his family’s need for subterfuge. When he was 8, his father was listed for interrogation and hid in Europe. His mother, desperate to join him, lied to the authorities that he had abandoned her to start another family. Curious more than upset, Matar pictured a blond half-sibling, and his father with a Swiss wife. When his mother weakened and telephoned her husband, he told her never to call again, and hung up. “It was difficult for both of them,” Matar says. “They had to pretend they were divorced, so they could be together.”
The novel’s dictatorship is 1950s Iraq, not Libya. But Matar, who will teach the fiction of “estrangement and exile” at Barnard College in New York in the fall, knows political exile to be a common Arab predicament. He writes of fathers and sons, but also about history: “My father’s generation were the audacious radicals, drunk on idealism and republican revolutions. My generation is one of disappointment. Exile has made us pessimists.”
Before the Arab Spring, he feared his father’s sacrifice had been futile. Now, seeing Libyan protesters carry pictures of Jaballa Matar and early dissidents who were killed, he believes such people “carved with their bare hands the first steps to this revolution.” When the uprising began, Matar and his wife, Diana, a California-born photographer, channeled information to the media from a makeshift “newsroom” in their London home, making up to 100 calls a day to Libya.
Speaking to his freed uncles gave him joy. “I realized how much you can take from a man, but you can only take so much. My uncle missed 21 years—his children are fully grown—but he still has his humor, intelligence, and resistance.” With Benghazi secured, Matar’s elder brother, Ziad, went searching, “but it yielded nothing. I would be surprised if my father’s alive, but there’s a very reasonable possibility. When the regime falls, we’ll have access to the prisons.”
He views it as scandalous that Western powers were “laughing at Gaddafi privately while doing business” with him and prolonging the regime. Though he is certain it will fall, he worries more about what comes next. After six months of fighting, the rebel coalition “risks being fractured. It’s Gaddafi’s last legacy—to leave us armed and fraught. How will the different factions construct something together where no one is asking for a louder voice or privileges because of how hard they fought or how much they lost?”
Loss has left Matar thirsty for justice, not revenge. The “robust and fair trials” he craves could also yield clues to end his personal anguish.
http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2011/08/14/hisham-matar-s-anatomy-of-a-disappearance.html
Hisham Matar: ‘I just want to know what happened to my father’
Hisham Matar’s family lived in a beautiful house in Tripoli, with servants, a fleet of cars and a glittering social life. Then came Colonel Gaddafi’s bloody Libyan revolution. In this moving account, the author recalls a childhood marked by escape attempts, British exile, and the unexplained disappearance of his beloved father
Sunday, 16 July 2006
I wish at least I had some happy man
as father, growing old in his own house -
but unknown death and silence are the fate
of him… Homer, The Odyssey
In Colonel Gaddafi’s Libya, during the bloody chaos of the late 1970s, the authorities, charged with “revolutionary” fervour, added my father’s name to a list of those wanted for interrogation. He was abroad at the time, and his friends sent him a message not to return. My mother, my brother Ziad and myself were still in Libya. During this time, Libya was preparing for its unjust war in neighbouring Chad. In a desperate attempt to boost numbers and in accordance with Gaddafi’s vision to “militarise the masses”, the army had effectively reduced the age for military service to 14 by making military training part of the national curriculum. Ziad was 13. Through messages delivered by hand, Mother and Father decided that the whole family had to leave. And so my mother began to plan our escape. I was eight years old and it would take her a year to get us out.
Since Colonel Gaddafi’s bloodless coup in 1969, the leader had, in the space of nine years, changed the colours of the national flag twice, redesigned the national currency in order to trick people into handing over their cash, and exhausted the goodwill of the public that had originally welcomed this new republican era. The new regime now penetrated every sphere of civic life: it implanted “Revolutionary Committees” in every institution and organisation, subjugated the press and dismantled one of the most progressive and independent university student unions in the post-colonial Arab world: executing its leaders in public squares and imprisoning hundreds of its members. Society was chased deeper indoors, until the only place Libyans could exist unmonitored was inside their homes.
But even that final private domain was invaded by regularly broadcast interrogations of those the regime deemed “anti- revolutionary” or “traitors” on national television. From our sitting rooms, we watched men stiff with fear under a camera’s harsh lights, answering questions delivered by faceless voices hot with impatience.
Then the army was ordered to pay a visit to every bookshop and library in Tripoli, armed with a long list of titles to be confiscated. Thousands of books were set on fire in one of the public squares. All that remained on the shelves of the startled booksellers’ shops were “educational” or “revolutionary” books. And so began a process familiar among dictatorships everywhere: the rewriting of history, the redefining of the present and a singular vision of the future.
Families such as mine – educated, wealthy and internationalist – were seen as “bourgeois”, “backward”, “halting the (omega) march”. This is why Father’s name was listed. And now men, with no more authority than the revolutionary green bandanas they wound round their heads, began to turn up at our door. They walked up through the rose garden, banged on the front door and demanded the keys to one of the cars, because it was immoral for one household to own more than one automobile, they said. We had four. I remember how their veins throbbed in their necks as they shouted. On one occasion, Mother unhooked the medallion from the key ring – a Quranic phrase set in silver – the next time, her hands shook too much and she threw the bunch of keys at them. Unaccustomed to the clutch, the men would drive the hiccuping car away in the dust.
The authorities were still trying to track my father down and they thought the best way of capturing him was to wait for his inevitable return to his family in Tripoli. And so they denied us permission to travel. My mother’s only chance of escape was to convince them that she and Father were no longer married, that the man they wanted had already started another family in Europe and had no intention of returning. She told us about her plan and, for a whole year, we kept up the pretence.
Part of me wondered if indeed Father hadn’t started another life elsewhere. I imagined one day meeting a half-sibling with yellow hair and blue eyes: a European in whose face I would see something of Father and, therefore, of myself. I pictured my father and his new family in Switzerland. We had spent several summers there, staying at Montreux, visiting the snow-capped Alps and driving to Lake Como, and I remember how the sight of young lovers on park benches around Lake Geneva – lips glued together in a blistering silence – had set my cheeks on fire and tightened my shoulders as I walked quickly ahead, pretending not to notice.
To a North African boy, Switzerland was the most exotic place on earth: its crisp air, the definite precision of the white and yellow drawings on the tarmac, the romantic rain, the childlike terraced farms descending the mountains, clean cows as if painted by a shy hand that could not bring itself to acknowledge shit, the oddly absent people (the streets in Switzerland had always seemed empty by comparison to our streets). So it amused me then to imagine a second me living there with my father and his new Swiss wife who was, apart from the blonde hair, exactly like my mother.
I later learnt from Mother that, at times, she weakened and could no longer resist the temptation to call him, to hear his voice, perhaps even to reassure herself that the myth she had constructed had not, during one unobserved hour when the world was night, been wickedly transformed into fact. Against her better judgement she would pick up the telephone and dial his number, and listen with restless longing to the indifferent precision of a Swiss dial tone. But his steely determination to remain true to her did not allow him to yield and so he would coldly reply, “Never call here again,” and hang up.
One afternoon, Mother asked us to pack. “We are going for a few weeks to the beach while decorators work on the house,” she said. “Take only what is precious.” My parents often rented a chalet by the beach for the weekend, but we had never been asked to pack “what is precious” before. When I asked her what she meant, she said, “Things you love the most.”
I packed the bottle of cologne that Father had recently bought me. Although only eight, it seemed proof that he had started to think of me as a man. I packed my “7-up” radio. It had FM, AM and three MW channels. I had never seen anything like it. It looked like a tin can but was strong enough to catch several Italian channels as well as the BBC World Service and Cairo’s Sout al-Arab. Ziad packed his medals – he had just, at the age of 13, won gold in the backstroke, silver in the butterfly and bronze in the crawl in the under-16 national swimming championship, and set a Libyan record for the 100 meters backstroke that, I have been recently informed, remains to be bettered.
On the way to the airport, Ziad cried; I couldn’t understand why he wasn’t as excited as I was at the prospect of boarding a plane.
The immigration officials didn’t buy Mother’s story. I remember how still and heavy her silence was — her dread was palpable – as we drove back to the life we had just abandoned. Not even Ziad looked happy.
A few days later, she woke up with renewed hope. She asked us to repack. When we were all in the car – the last one remaining – she ran back, unlocked the front door and disappeared inside. Then we saw her struggle under the weight of the television set. She dumped it in the boot and went back for the video player. At the airport, she went to the same man who had turned us back and held the car keys in front of his face. “Outside you’ll find a brand-new BMW, with a television and a video player. Let us through.” The man took the key and said, “Wait here.” After a long wait, he sent one of his colleagues to tell Mother: “Your husband is listed, you will not be able to leave the country until he returns.” Mother asked to see the man who now had our car keys, but was told he had left for the day. We took a taxi home.
Gaddafi is unique among dictators in that he has few constant beliefs. A position which has afforded him an extraordinary instinct for survival. And so, in 1979, months after Father’s name had appeared on a wanted list, exiled entrepreneurs such as my father, who had only recently been regarded as protagonists of evil economic practices, were suddenly promised amnesty. Unable to continue living away from us, Father decided to take the risk and flew back to Tripoli. He wasn’t arrested, but his passport was confiscated. The four of us were finally reunited.
The year that he had spent abroad taught Father that living without one’s country is a kind of daily death, that exile is, in essence, an endless mourning. However, despite my father’s return, my mother was still convinced we had to get out. Only a few weeks after his return, she began planning our trip. Her hunger for life, her love for the light, her determination to have us live free and in full command of our will, prevailed and inspired in Ziad and I an openness to the world that is today a testimony to the soundness of her judgement. I shall live eternally indebted to the calm determination with which she steered our ship out of Gaddafi’s Libya.
Driving us to the airport, Father was silent. We were leaving Libya without him. He must have known how long it would be before he would be able to catch up with us.
The man who had accepted Mother’s bribe two months before walked briskly away when he saw us approach. He vanished through a door that had the word PRIVATE printed on it. Now that Father was back, the other immigration officer at Tripoli International Airport allowed us to board the plane to Nairobi, where my mother’s brother lived.
Kenya was the perfect antidote. A lush paradise where the earth is red and leaves are as wide as bed sheets. It was also a place where you could get the latest Michael Jackson records, which seemed to me then a matter of the utmost importance. My uncle made our escape seem like a holiday.
But as it became increasingly clear that our father would not be joining us in the near future, Mother realised she had to find us a home and a school. Again through hand-delivered messages, Father sent us the details of a business associate in Egypt who owed him a large sum of money.
Cairo was the obvious choice. Not only was it a vibrant Arab capital, but my family had friends there. However, my father’s business associate could only pay us back slowly, so we lived in a spartan apartment in the capital that hardened our longing for the beautiful house we had left in Tripoli.
The schools we could afford had over 70 pupils per classroom. Ziad and I were bullied for being foreigners. In response, he began to surround himself with other exiled Libyan boys his age, while I embarked on perfecting my Egyptian accent, until it was impossible to tell me apart from a Caireen. Now it is Ziad who lives in Cairo and has the Caireen accent while I, 20 years into my second exile in London, speak Arabic with an unmistakably Libyan tongue.
The only luxury Mother made sure we could afford was swimming lessons for Ziad. She had heard of a brilliant coach and sent Ziad and I to him. Ziad seemed oddly nervous and didn’t say a word when the coach asked him to change and do 100m in the crawl. Only when he entered the water did he seem confident. The coach timed him. He asked him how old he was, but when Ziad spoke, the man interrupted him. “Where are you from?” he asked. “Libya,” Ziad said, his shoulders bobbing in and out of the water. “You should have said so from the start,” the man snapped, waving at Ziad to get out of the pool. “What’s in it for me to train a foreigner?”
Ziad never swam competitively again.
A year after arriving in Cairo, when I was 10 and Ziad 14, the three of us hung decorations and sat at the dining room table writing, in round, fat letters on coloured card, WELCOME HOME DEAREST FATHER; WE MISSED YOU; WE LOVE YOU. We cut out hearts and flowers and butterflies and stuck them on the front door of our apartment. We spent the whole day cleaning the rooms. Father had finally managed to escape and was on his way.
When we arrived at the airport to meet him, the place was packed. Whole families were there to greet returning relatives. I remember pushing my way through the forest of legs, nervous that I would not recognise my father. I was the first to see him. In the 12 months or so we had been apart, his hair had turned grey and his face seemed much older. He had on a dark suit and a black leather coat that ran dramatically down to his ankles. He was followed by two porters pushing huge dark trunks. On his way from Libya, Father had gone straight to Rome, had withdrawn money from his bank account and had bought all the props for a new life: china, bed linens, duvets, pillows. He bought the best he could find, wanting to make this new life as hopeful as possible.
Only after we were united with Father and learnt that our house had been robbed by Tripoli’s “Head of Internal Security” did I realise that we were not going back to Libya. My longing for all of the things that I had left behind became savage. Shortly before our departure, I had finally managed to fix an old problem with the left pedal of my bicycle. One of the sons of the Head of Internal Security is riding it now, I imagined, totally oblivious of the need to soften the pressure on the weak pedal. I thought of the grapes on the vines that covered the rear of our garden and how I used to pick them with my brother and (omega) mother and cousins. We would pile the grapes in wooden bowls and take them round to our neighbours. I now pictured the grapes rotting on the vine. I missed my cousins and the girl I had just fallen hopelessly in love with. I had piled up stones beneath her bathroom window and got to see her naked under the shower. Libya was a constant ache and I tormented my family by pleading they take me back.
In Cairo, Father began his political work in earnest: writing against the Libyan regime and mobilising the various factions of the exiled Libyan resistance to unite in order to overthrow the regime. It was a path we had all tried to dissuade him from.
He and my mother, having been very sociable in the early years of exile, lived quieter lives now, taking long morning walks, reading in the silent afternoons, meals with just the two of them. Ziad and I left Cairo to go to university in London. Then, one day, everything changed. My mother was setting the table when one of the servants came into the dining room and said that a man downstairs wanted to speak with Father. Father went to the front door and never returned.
For the first two years, the Egyptian secret service assured us that they had him in Cairo, and that his imminent release could only be assured by our silence: “If you make a fuss we can not guarantee anything.” We believed them, and continued to make the daily trip to their headquarters – a collection of square villas under the shade of eucalyptus trees in one of Cairo’s residential quarters. We often saw a car arrive at the compound with nervous-looking men sitting in the back seat. We waited in rooms with other families. My mother would always sit between Ziad and me, as if without us surrounding her, doubt would creep in. Every day, we were told the same thing, by the same overweight man sitting behind a heavy desk, his mighty weight sunk deep in a reclining armchair, the obligatory prayer rug advertised on the backrest. “He’s well. You must be patient. It’s for his own good. He crossed the line, went too far. Libya is our neighbour.”
We were kept in this state of uncertainty for three years until one morning a letter, written in Father’s careful handwriting, and smuggled from within the notorious political prison of Abu Sleem in Tripoli, was delivered to our home in the trembling hands of a young friend of Father’s who had carried it across the border. When he entered our house he went over to the music system and turned up the volume. He embraced Mother and whispered in her ear. There was something white in his hand. I thought it was tissue paper. He pushed it into her palm, but then couldn’t let go. They were both crying.
The single sheet of paper was folded several times. It gave an uncompromisingly detailed account of what had happened to him since he had disappeared. Father had been taken from his home in Cairo by Egyptian secret service officers and delivered to the Libyan secret service. Izzat Youssef al-Maqrif, another Libyan dissident who was living then in Cairo, had been taken on the same day. Both men were bundled into a car. Yellowing newspapers had been papered across the windows. After a while the road surface became smooth and he began to hear a humming sound that grew louder as the car picked up speed. The car stopped and when the passenger door was flung open Father saw that he was under the giant belly of an aeroplane. Three hours later he was in Tripoli.
Years later, I met a man who had worked on the runways of Tripoli’s airport. He had seen the two men disembark. They had both been handcuffed and blindfolded, and my father – he described his thick grey hair, his clothes – was saying over and over again, “God is my advocate and guardian.”
To this day, every knock on the door could be my father. But the only way in which he visits unannounced is in dreams. I dream of him frequently. He sometimes comes as a young man; other times, wounded by his prison torturers. Most recently, his visit was so vivid, I am yet to recover from it. He was an old man, the age he should be now, and had the reticence of someone accustomed to solitude. He had acquired new habits, new manners of speech: attaching the phrase “you see?” at the end of every other sentence. His character has been coloured by his companions, I thought jealously in my dream. He spoke briefly, courteously, the way a fellow train passenger might do to pass away the time. When I placed my hand on his shoulder, he fell silent. I woke up and made several fruitless attempts to re-enter the dream.
At times, I feel that I too am imprisoned with him. For 16 years now, my father has received no trial, nor has his family been allowed to know his whereabouts. I have not received a letter from him in 11 years. Instead, I have been caught between two terrible choices: if I speak out, I might risk his safety, and, if I am silent, am I an accomplice to the crime his captives have committed against him?
In March 2006, a group of Libyan dissidents staged an international online conference to mark the 16th anniversary of the abductions of my father and Izzat al-Maqrif. Ziad, Mother and I were suspicious. Over the years, many factions have wanted to claim my father to serve their ends. Still, we agreed to take part, the three of us sitting round Mother’s computer, hurriedly attempting to download the necessary software to take part in the conference.
The conference was oral and 350 people from around the world participated. There was a moderator and a few key speakers, who either knew Father or knew of him. Then the floor, as it were, was opened for comment. A quiet voice came through. At first, I wasn’t certain whether the speaker’s voice was hoarse or whether he was whispering deliberately. He said that he had never met “Mr Jaballa Matar”, but he wanted everyone to know that “his sacrifice has not been forgotten.” Then his voice became almost inaudible as he whispered: “Pardon me for this short message, but I am speaking from the inside, at an internet café, so goodbye.”
Ziad decided he had to speak. His hand shook as he began to write down what he might say. Mother brought out the letters. His eyes fell on one of the most powerful passages of Father’s first letter. Ziad spoke of the individual’s right to live in freedom and with dignity and then read the passage in which Father apologised to us for what we must have gone through but that, if he had it all to do again, he would not change a thing.
With that first letter – the first of only two – dated 1992 and received in 1993, Father had also managed to smuggle a tape recording of himself. It was the first time in three years, since he had been abducted, and the last that we heard his voice. I keep a copy in my desk drawer, but avoid listening to it. Occasionally, I weaken and play it. All in all, I have only managed to hear it through five times in the last 13 years.
“At times, a whole year would pass by without seeing the sun or being let out of this cell,” was one of the things he whispered. Two years after his first experience of a prison cell, the conditions of his incarceration improved. He described the new prison cell which he shared with Izzat al-Maqrif: “It is 6m by 6m. In one corner, there is a WC. The rest is empty. This, of course, has been designed for six to eight persons, even though they place in it many more than that, up to 18 people. But because they do not want anyone to know of us or mix with us we therefore enjoy living here alone and this, of course, is a great luxury many envy us for. This is a concrete box with a metal door through which no air seems to pass, and three windows which are at a height of 3.5m. As for the furniture, it is Louis XVI,” he says with an ironic smile audible in his voice (this was also a private pun because he had always preferred modern Italian furniture), “old torn mattresses infested with insects and locally made blankets of the worst kind. And the world here is empty.”
In 1996, a massacre took place in the prison of Abu Sleem. Between sunset of the 28 July 1996 and dawn the following day, the Libyan authorities shot more than 1,300 political prisoners. News of the massacre would not filter out of Libya until 2002. My father’s last letter was sent from Libya in 1995.
I have fantasised about justice but never revenge – I have never dreamed of behaving towards Gaddafi in the way he has behaved towards so many Libyans. Dictators such as Gaddafi can steal property, imprison, torture and kill, but they should never be allowed to dispossess us of our humanity. The only true battle going on here is the battle to sustain oneself within history’s assault.
How does one remain free from becoming a symbol or a victim? How do we remain whole and free from hate, yet truthful to our memory?
Life attempts to teach us about loss: that one can still find peace in the finality of death. And yet, my loss gives no peace. My father is not incarcerated, yet he is not free; he is not dead, yet he is not alive either. My loss is self-renewing, insistent and incomplete.
I was always told to expect to lose my father. Many Libyan political dissidents have been assassinated or kidnapped. But now I know that I had no comprehension of the danger he was in. If I had, I would have held on to him with all I could, or tried harder to persuade him not to engage in political dissent, perhaps. Regret is the cruellest companion for those of us who are left behind.
I did try to persuade him to leave his political work, because I loved my father more than I loved my country; or, to put it another way, I had learned by then to live without my country, but not without my father.
When Father was taken, the world did feel empty. For the first couple of years, our ship was lost, then we recovered our bearings and learnt that the speed by which one resumes living is no indication of the depth of one’s grief.
Father left three individuals. Now we are nine: both my brother and I are married, and Ziad now has four children. He and my sister-in-law named their first son Jaballa, after Father. Once, when Jaballa was three, he and I were alone in the car waiting for the others to come. From within the silence he asked, “Uncle, where is Granddad?” I am still unable to answer that question.
What I want is to know what happened to my father. If he is alive, I wish to speak with him and see him. If he has broken the law, he ought to be tried and given a chance to defend himself. And if he is dead, then I want to know how, where and when it happened. I want a date, a detailed account and the location of his body
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/hisham-matar-i-just-want-to-know-what-happened-to-my-father-407444.html?service=
Libyan author who lived in exile will teach at Barnard this fall
Although Hisham Matar was born in New York City, he spent much of his childhood in Tripoli, Libya. In 1979 his father, a Libyan representative to the United Nations, was accused of being a reactionary to the Libyan revolutionary regime and was forced to flee to Egypt with his family. There, Hisham spent a number of years in exile, before moving to London where he resides to this day.
Now, Matar is an award-winning author whose work has appeared in The New Yorker, The Financial Times, and The New York Times, among several other renowned publications. And this fall, he will teach an English class at Barnard. Spectrum had the opportunity to sit down with Matar and ask him about his new course, his childhood, and what it was like living in exile.
Spectrum: What about your Libyan roots and family history inspired you to teach this course?
Hisham Matar: I have always thought it interesting how novelists often have an insider’s knowledge of their societies yet, due to their existential condition, remain outsiders, observing the march as it passes. And so I thought what fun it would be to read with the students a certain set of books that illuminate this issue from different and hopefully surprising points of views.
Spectrum: What was it like being forced to flee Libya?
HM: We didn’t want to leave. I will forever be grateful to my mother, for her bravery and fortitude. It meant that my brother and I were exposed to more opportunities and, simply, the world. One of the things that dictatorships try to do is limit and ultimately retard society. So it becomes difficult to read the books you want, to see the films you like, or attend a concert even. To some degree, the home becomes the last refuge. By leaving, we were spared that fate.
Spectrum: Describe what it was like living in exile in Egypt. Did you study at an American school there?
HM: I missed home, the sea, my cousins, the girl next door. I missed my bicycle (I had just managed, finally, to fix the old problem with the left pedal…). But I also found Cairo exhilarating. It had then the feel of a great city. I went to Cairo American College. I cannot say I enjoyed it. None of the teachers were particularly talented. There was an odd official tenor to the atmosphere. For some reason the American boys there liked to form gangs. And those gangs were always in need of enemies. You can guess the rest.
Spectrum: Why teach this class at Barnard as opposed to any other college?
HM: Over a cup of tea at the college canteen, Bashir Abu-Manneh and I began talking about what sort of course I might teach if I were to teach at Barnard. We were speaking hypothetically and more to entertain ourselves. But our conversation got my brain going. An idea began to form and I quickly became terribly excited about the prospect of teaching this course at Barnard. Bashir obviously knew exactly what he was doing.
Spectrum: What will the class entail? What authors will you be reading, and from what countries?
HM: It will be a meditation on a theme rather than a survey of writing from a specific region or by a specific race. The oldest book on the list is Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights (165 years), an old favorite. And the youngest is Tahar Ben Jelloun’s This Blinding Absence of Light(barely eleven years old). There are novels by Moroccan, Russian, Chinese, Egyptian, Italian, French, German, and other authors. We’ll be reading not as theoreticians or critics, but as lovers of literature and language: looking for pleasure and ways of opening the text, rather than summarizing it or packaging it up. It is a class motivated by close reading and the delight that is to be had in that.
Spectrum: Do you have any advice for aspiring writers?
HM: Write and read. Live and pay attention to nature.
http://spectrum.columbiaspectator.com/ARTS/LIBYAN-AUTHOR-WHO-LIVED-IN-EXILE-WILL-TEACH-AT-BARNARD-THIS-FALL
Libyan revolution has made democracy real and tangible idea, says novelist
Hisham Matar speaks at Edinburgh international book festival after rebel cousin shot dead in Gaddafi’s compound
- Charlotte Higgins, chief arts writer
- guardian.co.uk,
“The moment that the Libyan rebels entered the Gaddafi compound was astonishing: and it was also slightly eerie. You could see bullets, but no faces. And to me this was symbolic of the Gaddafi regime, of how it has surrounded itself with appearances, and stories.
“This week has been like that moment when you surface from a nightmare and realise that though the nightmare-image is terrifying, it is also incredibly fragile.”
Such was the description of recent events in Libya by one of the country’s leading novelists, Hisham Matar, whose cousin Izz al Arab Matar, a member of the rebel front, was shot dead in Gaddafi’s compound on Tuesday.
Speaking at the Edinburgh international book festival, Matar said: “For the first time in our history the idea of democracy is a real, tangible idea, not a fairy tale. Revolutions aren’t about negative objectives, about simply getting rid of people. They are about discovering who we are; and what it means to be Libyans.”
Matar’s family was exiled from Libya after his father, Jaballa Matar, was branded a dissident in the 1970s. Jaballa Matar was abducted by Egyptian agents in 1990, and later brought back to Libya’s Abu Salim jail, an event Matar fictionalised in his novel Anatomy of a Disappearance. Matar declined to talk to the Edinburgh audience about whether he believed his father was dead or alive.
Any sense of Libyan identity and narrative, he said, had been hijacked by the “nightmare” of the Gaddafi regime; in fact it had been the programme of the dictatorship to capture and corrupt even the minutest details of individuals’ stories.
“One of the objects of dictatorship is to create a narrative that defines what it means to be in the present and what the future might look like; in fact it even tries to rewrite history. Dictators are involved in the same thing as novelists: they are involved in narrative,” he said.
“The difference is that novelists are interested in narratives that mirror life, narratives that express conflicting empathies, that express the contradictions of what it means to be human, that express emotions, psychology.
“Dictators, on the other hand, write bad novels that are intolerant of change, that are simple-minded. And they do that by entering the most private aspects of our lives, by trying to affect even how people love one another, how people read, think about the future, about their children’s education.”
Speaking about his novel In the Country of Men, Man Booker-shortlisted in 2006, he said: “I didn’t want to write a novel that gave a view of historical reality of dictatorship, but how a dictatorship affects private moments, small gestures, how someone might pick up a coffee cup differently, or what sort of music they might listen to.”
Matar compared Gaddafi to another dictator, this time from Shakespeare. “When everything is so firmly constructed to convince you of a certain kind of reality you in fact get trapped: like Richard III. I really do think that Gaddafi is one of the victims of the Gaddafi reality.”
Where the events in Libya and countries such as Tunisia and Egypt might lead is uncertain, the writer acknowledged. “Islam,” Matar said, “is a very important element of daily life, and part of our heritage. The problem with destroying political movements is that resistance has to find a language, and the Muslim language is a very compelling, powerful and effective language for many people. I would be very surprised if the Muslim Brotherhood doesn’t form part of the eventual Egyptian government. That is the harvest of the dictatorship.
“But,” he added, “The fact is you are either a democrat or not. If the Muslim Brotherhood then undermines democratic values that’s another matter, but that’s assuming too much. They are looking more towards Turkey than to Saudi or Iran.”
Every aspect of the revolution, he said, has been astonishing. “It seems almost miraculous what has taken place. That you have a deceitful, limitless violence inflicted on a civilian population, and that civilian population has continued to make extra sacrifices and remain articulate and hopeful is astonishing. It is a holy moment. There is something sacred in it.”
Hisham Matar’s fight to free his father
Novelist Hisham Matar has not seen his father since he was taken prisoner by Libyans in 1990. Could he still be alive?
In March 1990, when Libyan novelist Hisham Matar was studying architecture at Goldsmiths College, London, his parents were, as he describes it, in a “mellow” phase of their lives and living in Cairo. Whenever he rang them, they talked, “to my great delight”, about long walks, lazy lunches, reading books together. Hisham first gathered something was wrong when a Libyan contemporary at Goldsmiths shrank when he saw Hisham “as if ashamed” and asked: “Is your father OK?” He replied that his father was fine. The friend put his hand on Hisham’s arm and said: “Whatever happens, know I am here for you.”
Hisham rang the family home in a panic. His mother was judiciously vague on the telephone, saying only that he and his brother should come home soon. He remembers the sight of his mother in the airport’s arrivals lounge. She looked unlike herself, with hair pulled back, no make-up. She was wearing black (a colour she never wore but favours now). She told her sons that their father had been taken by the Egyptian secret service but that his parting words had been: “Don’t worry, I’ll be back soon.”
What his mother did not know – and would not find out until two years later when a letter from Hisham’s father was smuggled out – was that the Egyptian secret service had handed Jaballa Matar over to the Libyan police. He had been handcuffed, blindfolded, pushed into a car with newspapers over its windows and driven to Cairo airport. From there, he had been manhandled into a private jet and flown to Libya. His blindfold was only taken off at his destination: the notoriously barbaric Abu Salim jail.
Recently when Matar discovered that his father, who he had believed to be dead and has not seen for 20 years, might still be alive, the news was almost too good to bear. His family had feared that Jaballa Matar was one of 1,200 political prisoners shot, in 1996, in Abu Salim prison. It was through another political prisoner that they learnt that he had been seen alive (“frail but well”) in 2002. Now Hisham and his family are once again trying to manage hope – that most unmanageable emotion. And Hisham is putting all his energies into a campaign to release his father – or find out the truth about what happened to him.
Colonel Gadaffi and his bloody revolutionary committee were responsible for the abduction. It was a regime that could target anyone, on any whim, no questions asked or answered. As early as 1979, when the family were living in Tripoli, Jaballa was put on a list of people wanted for interrogation. “No one knew why except that he was wealthy, a member of the intelligentsia and had never expressed enthusiasm for the regime.” The latter was certainly true: Jaballa had worked for the United Nations in New York and, in 1973, had resigned in protest at the conduct of Gadaffi’s government. Then, when Hisham was three, Jaballa and his family – unwisely one might say with hindsight – returned to Libya where he became a successful entrepreneur (bringing Converse and Mitsubishi to the Middle East). They had a beautiful house, servants, several cars and a tremendous social life. But as soon as Jaballa was on Gadaffi’s list, Hisham’s mother knew they could not remain – the flight into Egypt followed a year later.
Once in Cairo, Jaballa became more outspoken in his opposition of Gadaffi’s dictatorship. “He believed Libya should be ruled by a democratic structure where the courts had a strong presence.” Hisham used to have “lively debates” with his father about politics and religion. Jaballa was a devout Muslim, Hisham a doubter. But his father was “unusually” tolerant of his views. Hisham reads aloud from his father’s last letter, written in 1995, which shows how much his faith mattered to him: “The cruelty of this place far exceeds all of what we know of the fortress prison of Bastille. The cruelty is in everything, but we remain stronger than their tactics of oppression… My forehead does not know how to bow. I am keeping steadfast with my faith and find shelter in its protection.” The letters are precious to the family. But the tape their father smuggled out was like “a bomb in my drawer”, Hisham says. He has listened to it only five times in 20 years: “It is very painful to hear his voice because you hear how alone he is – you can hear the echo in the room.”
Hisham has a face designed for the passing on of good news: cheerful, cherubic with jet-black curly hair. And he is jubilant about the latest development in his campaign – that Archbishop Desmond Tutu is to make a statement to the Libyan government urging his father’s release. At the same time, you can seen how continuing uncertainty wears him down – and affects everything. It even creeps into the language he uses: “Describing my father, there is a problem with tenses,” he says, hesitating between “was” or “is”. There is indecision about practical matters too. What to do with his father’s clothes? His mother has had a room built to store them (Jaballa was a dashing dresser – he liked Italian suits and good shoes). The room symbolises their predicament – a purgatorial waiting room. “Did you know that clothes shrink over time if they are not worn?” Hisham asks.
And has the memory of his father receded too? “The possibility that he is alive estranges him from me,” he says sadly. Does he think it is true that the disappeared vanish as characters when they become news? It is as if the enormity of what has happened to them dwarfs personality. What was his father actually like?
The enthusiasm with which Hisham sets about the task of answering this is touching. At first, he finds handfuls of adjectives… “affectionate”, “old-fashioned”, “warm”. To these, he adds “unreachable”. Then he homes in, with gaiety, on an anecdote – his father’s attempts to teach him to drive, aged eight – precocious age for a chauffeur – in an automatic Honda Civic. He used to beg his father to let him drive. Next, like a child’s patchy drawing, Hisham lists features – the outsize nose, the exceptionally beautiful hands, the short stature. Most of all, he remembers his father’s eyes: “I think of them as I knew them – looking at me in a gentle, comforting way.” Hisham has a gentle, comforting manner too. No wonder his father nicknamed him Sharh Elbal – “he who soothes the mind”.
There have been many times, over the last 20 years, when Hisham needed someone to soothe his mind. But he is modest about his sufferings and about how “ill” the early years made him. “I shifted violently between idealising my father and being angry with him,” he says. The hardest time of all was in the summer of 2002. Hisham had practised briefly as an architect but felt he had a “calling” as a novelist – and decided he would go to Paris. There he found himself a beautiful, sunny room. But he could not write. At his lowest ebb, walking by the river, he thought about killing himself. What he was experiencing was a vicarious captivity, a feeling he needed to join his father. It was partly the thought that despair would be the last thing his father wanted for him that saved him. And in 2006, In the Country of Men, the novel started in Paris, was shortlisted for the Booker prize.
Even now, Hisham is keen not to excite pity. At 40, he wants it to be clear he has a good life. He is married to Diana, an American-born photographer. He has “diverse” and supportive friends. And his mother and brother are surviving too. They “eat and laugh – my father’s photo is on the wall. My mother can get enjoyment from a new dress.” He hesitates: “It is just that there is a wire – a wire of grief across all this.”
If alive, Jaballa would be in his 70s. What might he be like? “I think about this every day. I prepare myself for the idea that we would be strangers, that we would have to start something new. I have an almost physical desire to take care of him. In many ways, the son becomes the father.” And as the son, Hisham is, in a sense, in the driving seat he once longed for, determined to steer straight, hoping his father will, one day, sit beside him.
The short life and cruel death of Libyan freedom fighter Izz al-Arab Matar
Booker prize-shortlisted Libyan novelist Hisham Matar writes movingly of how his cousin was killed by a sniper in Muammar Gaddafi’s compound
My cousin Izz al-Arab Matar, a 22-year-old final-year student in engineering, was shot in Bab al-Aziziya, Muammar Gaddafi’s fortified compound in Tripoli, at 4.30pm on Tuesday 23 August 2011.
“Izzo”, as his friends and family liked to call him, had joined the rebel front immediately after the revolution started on 17 February.
He fought in the liberation of his hometown of Ajdabiya, helped liberate Brega and then went on to join the rebels in Misrata.
He would return home to his family in Ajdabiya occasionally to rest, get a change of clothes and eat a proper meal before setting off again.
Every time his mother would ask him not to leave. He would reply by jokingly quoting from Gaddafi’s defiant, savage speech, made a few days after the rebellion began: “Forward, forward.”
She once asked him: “Forward until when? When will you stop fighting?”
“When we reach Bab al-Aziziya,” he told her.
While fighting in Misrata, Izzo met Marwan Mustafa al-Thumy, a 28-year-old. The two men became inseparable.
On 19 August, in the battle that liberated Zlitan, Marwan was shot dead. Izzo carried his friend to Misrata and buried him there. A few days later he headed with the rebels towards Tripoli, and then to Bab al-Aziziya. He found his older brother Hamed, 27, waiting for him there.
They were among the first to enter the compound. With their comrades, the two brothers reached Gaddafi’s house. They found it empty.
Izzo located a weapons depot that gave the rebels access to more ammunition. Then a sniper’s bullet hit him in the forehead. It penetrated his skull and exited from the rear.
He fell on his brother’s shoulder. He was rushed to hospital and four hours later, at 9pm, he died. His last words were that he wanted to be buried in Misrata, beside his friend Marwan.
Izzo’s father, my uncle Mahmoud Matar, who had begun his 21-year incarceration when Izzo was just a year old, said: “I grieve to be separated from my son, but I am proud of him. He sacrificed his life for a free and just Libya. His sacrifice urges us all to guard that dream.”
Izz al-Arab Matar is survived by his parents, Mahmoud and Zainab, and his siblings: Summer, Sameera, Salwa, Hamed, Fujra, Abd el-Salam and Amal.
We ask that God has mercy on Izzo and gives his family patience and the power to endure the loss.
Hisham Matar is the author of In the Country of Men, which was shortlisted for the Man Booker prize in 2006
